Predictors of risk for a defined adverse outcome following opioid use in AI research, reported in 34 included studies
| Adverse outcome | Number of studies (%) | Variable predictive of risk |
| Prolonged opioid use after surgery | 7 (21) | Age; marital status; preoperative opioid use and duration; preoperative medications (antidepressants, benzodiazepines, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, gabapentin and beta-2-agonists); medications commonly used to treat anxiety and insomnia; preoperative haemoglobin; tobacco use; comorbidity of depression or diabetes; instrumentation; Medicaid insurance; and particular pharmacy ordering sites. |
| Opioid use disorder | 4 (12) | Mean annual amount of opioid use days; number of overlaps in opioid prescriptions per year; mean annual opioid prescriptions; annual benzodiazepine and muscle relaxant prescriptions; initiation of marijuana before 18 years; pain; mental health issues; traumatic brain injury; and male gender. Dynamics through time-in-treatment of decision-making parameters and symptom intensity (craving, anxiety and withdrawal symptoms). |
| Opioid dependence | 3 (9) | Psychopathy; higher WBC and respiratory disturbances; malnutrition, and reduced sensitivity to loss. |
| Opioid poisoning and overdose | 3 (9) | Sedative, hypnotic or anxiolytic dependence; arrest history; the number of overdoses in a person’s social network; early refills; total days’ supply; concomitant use of antidepressants; concomitant use of antipsychotics; total opioid claims; and high-dose opioid-benzodiazepine use. |
| Opioid abuse and misuse | 2 (6) | Violation of opioid agreements; release from prison; and an indicator for an arrest. |
| Chronic opioid therapy | 1 (3) | More than 10 mg of morphine equivalent/per day during hospitalisation; two or more opioid prescriptions filled in the year preceding the index hospitalisation; past year receipt of non-analgesic pain medications; and past year receipt of benzodiazepines. |
| Emergency department opioid prescription | 1 (3) | CT scan ordered, abdominal pain and back pain. |
AI, artificial intelligence.