Table 2

Key characteristics extracted from the definitions of FI*

Key characteristic	Associated key words	Reference(s)
Affordability	Unnecessary costs Low cost Cost-conscious Cost-effective Minimum-cost Non-essential costs Significantly lower costs Low budget Low purchasing power Low income Low priced Economic means	42
Adaptability	Addressing specific needs Flexible Conforming to needs Suffice the needs Focus on crucial needs Developed for very specific applications Meeting the needs Innovated under Doing more for less Means or an ends Needs and context of citizens in the developing world are put first	39
Accessibility	Availability Convenience Ease of access In any segment of the economic pyramid Both emerging and developed markets For the many For more people	6 7 13 16 24 31 42 45–48
Sustainability	Eco-friendly Ecosystem Low environmental impact Repurposing Low environmental intervention Ecological Renewable Spare resource use Sustainable development	18 31 49 52 64
Scalability	Volume Profitable Expanding Scaling Changing markets Market orientation Reverse innovation Large scale	1 18 20 39
Simplicity	Easy to use User-friendly User-friendliness No previous training required Low competency Strip back Essential Basic Simple Simpler Sophistication Non-essential Minimising the use of material Reduces material waste	18 31 42 52 63 64
Emerging market	Bottom of the pyramid Low-income market Developing countries Developing world Low-income to middle-income countries Low purchasing power Resource constrained Resource scarcity Unserved customers Underserved consumers	13 18 20 24 31 39 42 47
Developed market	Top of the pyramid High-income market Developed countries Developed world High-income countries Medium to high purchasing power	39 42
Functionality	Essential Appropriate Minimalistic Minimalism De-featuring Unnecessary frills stripped out	19 64
Performance	Optimisation Robust Outperform Enhanced Advanced High quality	19 74
Process	Approach Procedure Moving counterparts	6 7 13
Outcome	Result Conclusion Consequence Reaction	24 31
Mindset	Psychological Cognitive Behaviour Lifestyle Mentality Attitude Ethos Decision making Thought process	17 49
Resource scarcity/constrained	Limited resources Sparing resources Budget constraints Insufficiency Resource shortages Limited or no access Shortages	3 16 20 24 31 45–48 64
Good-enough	Sufficient Suffice Functional Acceptable Appropriate Passable Decent Satisfactory Contention	13 16 17 45 48
High value	Potential Profitable Scalable Attractive Novelty	20 49 63

*Adapted from Weyrauch and Herstatt.19
FI, frugal innovation.