We searched PubMed, Science Citation Index Expanded, and Social Sciences Citation Index, and references from relevant articles for English language articles from Jan 1, 1980, to Feb 1, 2013, using the search terms: “hearing loss”, “tinnitus”, “annoyance”, “cardiovascular disease”, “hypertension”, “high blood pressure”, “myocardial infarction”, “stroke”, “sleep”, “cognitive performance”, “reading ability”, and “hospital”, in combination with “noise”. Each author did their own search, and is also
ReviewAuditory and non-auditory effects of noise on health
Introduction
Evolution has programmed human beings to be aware of sounds as possible sources of danger.1 Noise, defined as unwanted sound, is a pollutant whose effects on health have been neglected, despite the ability to precisely measure or calculate exposure from peak levels or energy averaged over time (panel 1, figure 1). Although people tend to habituate to noise exposure, degree of habituation differs for individuals and is rarely complete.2 If exposure to noise is chronic and exceeds certain levels, then negative health outcomes can be seen. Health effects were first recognised in occupational settings, such as weaving mills, where high levels of noise were associated with noise-induced hearing loss.3 Occupational noise is the most frequently studied type of noise exposure. Research focus has broadened to social noise (eg, heard in bars or through personal music players) and environmental noise (eg, noise from road, rail, and air traffic, and industrial construction). These noise exposures have been linked to a range of non-auditory health effects including annoyance,4 sleep disturbance,5 cardiovascular disease,6, 7 and impairment of cognitive performance in children.8 The health effects of noise from entertainment venues and from neighbours are elusive, but nevertheless, cause many complaints to local authorities. The meaning attributed to sounds might affect our response to them—eg, the response to aircraft noise might differ between an airport employee and a resident who fears long-term health consequences due to the noise exposure. Noise is pervasive in urban environments and the availability of quiet places is decreasing. In the European Union, about 56 million people (54%) living in areas with more than 250 000 inhabitants are exposed to road traffic noise of more than average LDEN 55 dB per year, which is thought to be risky to health.9 Thus, understanding of occupational and environmental noise is important for public health. In this Review, we summarise knowledge and research related to noise exposure and both auditory and non-auditory health effects.
Section snippets
Noise-induced hearing loss
Noise is the major preventable cause of hearing loss. Noise-induced hearing loss can be caused by a one-time exposure to an intense impulse sound (such as gunfire), or by steady state long-term exposure with sound pressure levels higher than LA 75–85 dB—eg, in industrial settings. The characteristic pathological feature of noise-induced hearing loss is the loss of auditory sensory cells in the cochlea. Because these hair cells cannot regenerate in mammals, no remission can occur; prevention of
Annoyance
Annoyance is the most prevalent community response in a
Conclusions
Hearing loss caused by occupational or recreational noise exposure is highly prevalent and constitutes a public health threat needing preventive and therapeutic strategies. In this Review, we emphasise that non-auditory health effects of environmental noise are manifold, serious and, because of the widespread exposure, very prevalent. These factors stress the need to regulate and reduce environmental noise exposure (ideally at the source) and to enforce exposure limits to mitigate negative
Search strategy and selection criteria
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